Challenges to Media Freedom and Pluralism in Seven Regions of Europe:
an Analytical Framework

Miklos Sukosd (University of Copenhagen)

Abstract

This talk proposes a unified analytical framework for the exploration of diverse challenges to media freedom and pluralism in different parts of Europe.

In terms of empirical trends of media freedom, one may distinguish seven regions of Europe: Northern Europe, Western Europe, the Baltic states, Southern Europe, Central/Eastern Europe, South East Europe and Eastern Europe. These seven regions display surprisingly consistent and significant differences in their level
of media freedom in the last decades (Freedom House data, 1994-2015, supported by Reporters Without Borders and other metrics). Key challenges to media freedom in several regions of Europe often relate to the growing role of partisan oligarchs in media ownership, increasing government interference with media, and various forms of (self-)censorship. As media freedom and pluralism are interconnected, several related challenges are conceptualized in terms of threats to media pluralism. These could be most thoroughly measured by the European Media Pluralism Monitor (that lists 166 specific indicators in the legal, economic and social dimensions of media pluralism). Another challenge related to media freedom concerns limitations on access to information and government transparency. Education of digital and media literacy is another key
critical area in the age of social media when media users have a growing responsibility in choosing and distributing content from a multitude of available communication offers.

Media pluralism is usually investigated at the level of nation states. However, the fragmentation of the public sphere of the European Union into national media systems also represents a challenge itself at the European level. The lack of significant pan-European media apparently blocks further European integration and leaves European publics vulnerable to the discourses of banal nationalism of national media systems. At the same time, we also see a gradual erosion of the European institution of public service media (PSM). As a critical trend, the relative audience/user share of PSM decreases all over Europe (to different degrees in the diverse regions). This is partly due to limitations on the expansion by PSM to the online and social media sectors by state-aid rules of the European Commission.

In the last several years, however, one also witnessed the emergence of new types of diverse transnational challenges to media freedom and pluralism as well as security in Europe. First, Russian strategic disinformation pose a new threat to the political process of any country. Disinformation activities include the concerted efforts of the proliferation of Russian-backed propaganda websites, organized political trolling, targeted communicative actions, RT, etc.

Second, the fear by many journalists of violence and terrorism also affects freedom of expression, especially in the area of representation of Muslim religion. The recent massacre of 12 editors and cartoonists of the Charlie Hebdo editorial community in Paris 2015, and the killing of Danish film director Finn Nørgaard in a a similar attack in Copenhagen 2015, created widespread fear and self-censorship among journalists all over Europe.

Third, Chinese media power in Europe is presently represented mostly by soft power measures, e.g., sponsorship and free content offers. However, potential acquisition and ownership of European media organizations by Chinese firms became a possibility. There are several recent takeovers of international
media firms that indicate a new trend of Chinese companies investing in global media markets. The daily newspaper South China Morning Post (in Hong Kong) was acquired by the giant Chinese online company Alibaba Group in April 2016 (and turned into a pronouncedly pro-Beijing line since then). The major Hollywood studio Legendary Entertainment was bought by the Chinese conglomerate Wanda Group (for US$ 3.5 billion) in January 2016. Skyscanner, the leading (formerly Scottish-owned) global metasearch engine for travel information (on flights, hotels and car hire) was bought by the Chinese travel company, Ctrip for $1.75 billion in November 2016. These cases (as well as controversial Chinese buyouts of European high-tech companies) may represent only the beginning of China’s intention to invest in Western media markets, including European media companies.

Finally, on a different note, US-based online media services (especially Facebook and Google) also pose long-term structural challenges to media pluralism in Europe (and other parts of the world). These online services siphon off growing proportions of advertising revenues from European media markets and create
unprecedented communication monopolies.

Usually, we see these diverse challenges as if they were emerging in separate fields or separate dimensions. This talk, however, proposes a unified analytical framework for assessing the challenges. I argue that these challenges are present all over Europe, but in certain regions (especially in Central and Eastern Europe,
South Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, and the Baltic states) societies and democratic media systems are more vulnerable, and the risks are greater. One should also consider the actual and potential synergy of these
challenges. The table below summarizes the analytical framework.

EE SEE CEE SE Baltic WE NE

Domestic/EU challenges
-Media freedom
(Freedom House, Reporters Without Borders, other metrics)
Legal indicators
Political indicators
Economic indicators
-Media pluralism
(European Media Pluralism Monitor: 166 indicators)
Legal indicators
Economic indicators
Social indicators
-Media/digital literacy
-Freedom of information/government transparency
EU challenges
-Fragmentation of EU public sphere into national
media systems (lack of significant pan-European media,
banal nationalism in national media)
-PSM audience/user shares decrease, partly due to
limitations on expansion of PSM to online and social
media due to state-aid rules

Transnational challenges
-Russian disinformation power (e.g., propaganda
websites, trolling, targeted communic. actions, RT)
-US economic media power (e.g., massive advertisement
shift to Google/Facebook)
-Threat of violence and terrorism against journalists by
Muslim radicals (e.g., massacre of 12 editors and cartoonists
of Charlie Hebdo editorial community in Paris 2015; killing
film director Finn Nørgaard in attack in Copenhagen 2015)
-Chinese media power (e.g., soft power measures, but also
the prospect of Chinese acquisition of European media firms)